Applying Judgement Theory to the Cannibalist Manifesto and Brazilian Modernism

 “The Brazilian government was seen as “spearheading a “revolution” against copyright on everything from music and internet file sharing through… HIV drugs” (Comaroff & Comaroff 2009: 34).” ( Lippman, 2014, p.11). Open IP is “vernacularised” in Brazil. This can be directly traced to the attitudes started in Brazil by Oswald de Andrade and the following Modernismo and Tropicalia movements. Lippman’s article finishes by saying Brazil has a “tendency to share, appropriate, remix and share intellectual property as a commons” ( Lippman, 2014, p.14), it has a habit of cultural cannibalism. 

These attitudes were started in the Manifesto Antropófago by Oswald de Andrade which responded to the society in Brazil which came from the Portuguese invasion in the sixteenth century. "Antropófago" is the Portuguese word for the devouring and digesting of human flesh. The modernismo and tropicalia movements which were birthed by the Manifesto Antropófago operate under the judgement that art can extensively represent the authentic face of a colonised nation through the act of eating and digesting the hegemonic, enforced culture (Western, logic based culture for the Brazilian example). According to  de Andrade, art based on digested colonial attitudes combined with native cultures can make a truly Brazilian outcome. From a contemporary perspective this feels like an input-output system for creating culture, revelling in ignoring copyright ideologies. 

This essay will discuss the idea of how one passes judgement while analysing the manifesto, outlining the judgement in the manifesto itself and also applying different forms of judgement to its ideas afterwards. These will be used to judge artworks and music created under this movement. The essay will also discuss criticism and evaluations made by other writers and cultural philosophers which accuse him of simplifying native cultures to use as a symbol of his own opinions. 

This essay will ask whether art produced under cannibalism can be a victim of aesthetic pastiche, how strengths come from cultural hybridity and how Brazilian Modern art movements are primarily interested in responding to European cultural hegemony. 

Oswald de Andrade (1890–1954) was a Brazilian writer and  poet, who came from a bourgeois background in São Paulo, Brazil.  He played a crucial role in Brazilian Modernismo (Dunn,2001, p.17). Andrade was known for his avant-garde approach to literature and his involvement in cultural activism. His works, including novels, poems, and essays, often reflected his interest in blending indigenous, African, and European influences to create modernist Brazilian cultural expression. 

Andrade was married to Tarsila do Amaral who’s work Abaporu is said to have influenced the Manifesto Antropófago (a linework rendition of the painting appears in the original publication of the text (Fig.1)). The painting depicts “an elongated, isolated figure with a blooming cactus.” (MoMA, N/D). Abaporu means “the man who eats people” in the indigenous Tupi language” (Sac,2022), in the painting this is symbolised by enlarged hands and feet, in contrast with its small head (Fig.1). Tarsila do Amaral left Brazil to study modern art in Europe in 1922 and was associated with and influenced by Pablo Picasso. This European influence predates the creation of Abaporu, showing a hegemony of European Modernism . An example of the types of aesthetics that  do Amaral would have been exposed to is  Picasso’s Composition With Character [Woman With Arms Crossed] (1920 ) (Fig 1.1)

Fig.1.do Amaral, T, (1928), Abaporu

Fig.1.1. Picasso,P.( 1920), Composition With Character [Woman With Arms Crossed] 

The Portuguese colonisation of Brazil began in the early 16th century with the arrival of Portuguese explorers. The colony became a major hub for the Atlantic slave trade, bringing millions of African slaves to work on plantations. This amalgamation of cultures gave rise to what is now recognised as Brazilian identity, characterised by syncretism and cultural hybridity. This is a central theme in Andrade's Cannibalist Manifesto. The founding of São Paulo by Jesuit missionaries played a significant role in the conversion of indigenous peoples to Christianity.

Oswald de Andrade's rejection of catechism and embrace of cannibalism can be interpreted as a critique of colonial intellectualism. He challenges the notion that Western logic and values are inherently superior, advocating instead for a more organic approach to thought and creativity.

“The deployment of the cannibal trope constituted the cervical nerve of the “civilising mission” - or rather the annexation of peoples, cultures, and natural resources to the logic of empire” (Castro-Klarén, 2000, p-295).

De Andrade draws upon Tupi cannibalistic rituals as a metaphorical framework to express his ideas about cultural creation. The Tupi people were indigenous inhabitants of Brazil. Their cannibalistic rituals involved consuming the flesh of enemies that they respected in order to gain their strength and vitality. 

 “Tupinambá Society included its Enemies, and did not exist outside its relation-ship  with  the  Other—a  generalized  heteronym,  an  ‘external’  dialectic  of  human  sacrifice,  the  necessity  of  alien  deaths  and  of  death  by  alien  hands  [de  mortos  alheios  e  de  morte  em  mãos  alheias]  ...  the  incorporation  of  the  incorporeal,  a  becoming-enemy: that is cannibalism” (Madureira, 2011, p.31). 

In the front of colonisation by the Portuguese, these people were driven off their land and their “race lost” which made them a perfect symbol for later Brazilian nationalists. ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991). 

The early 20th century saw the rise of the Modernismo movement in Brazil, which aimed to break away from traditional European influences (as discussed above with the Picasso example Fig.1.1)  and establish a distinct Brazilian cultural identity. Europe's cultural hegemony regarding Modern art had its primary moment at the Modern Art Week São Paulo (1922) which is often credited with jump-starting the Modern art movement there. 

The specifically Brazilian Modernist movement to which Oswald de Andrade was responding to was Modernismo which primarily refers to literature and poetry. The subsequent movement based on these directions was called Anthropofagia which then became Tropicália in the 1960’s which involved combining pop culture with traditional brazilian and foreign aesthetics and often refers to music. 

Although these Brazilian modernist movements claim to move away from Europe, it is still clear through aesthetic comparisons that it takes influence from European Cubism, Abstract and DaDa sensibilities (compare Fig.1 with Fig.1.1). This idea does not point out a fallacy with the Brazilian movement but rather further shows the cannibalistic characteristics of it. To that, there is an example of an earlier, French, Cannibalist Manifesto.

Of course it is most likely that this synchronicity comes with hindsight. The difference between Brazilian DaDaesque poetry and French DaDa  is exemplified with Francis Picabia’s The DaDa Cannibal Manifesto (1920).( Picabia, 1920). Similar visuals appear between the two but the beliefs and goals are different  “in the French publications, the term “cannibal” is meant only to shock and lacks the precise political, cultural, and literary program of the Brazilian movement” (Jackson, 1994). 

In the French manifesto the word “cannibal” is used to shock rather than symbolise any sort of cultural meaning.“The link between aesthetic appreciation and imperial expansion is mirrored in other, more explicit forms of cultural consumption in which sacred objects are seized” (Root,1996,p.21). The “sacred object” is the idea of traditional ritual cannibalism which is being appropriated for its aesthetics rather than cultural meaning. 

“Nineteenth-century colonists believed that the art and artefacts of people across the globe were by definition for the taking, precisely because of Westerners’ supposedly greater, scientific perspective entitled them to bring the arts of all other cultures under their purview” (Root,1996,p.21) the French Dadaists believed they could pick and choose symbols from colonised lands for aesthetic means and not have to pay attention to their historical implications, this is European Modernist hegemony. 

European DaDa is about being ridiculous and “itself wants nothing, nothing, nothing,”( Picabia, 1920). Whereas Brazilian modernist attitudes value retelling stories of Brazilian colonial history and emphasising its folklores.

“Such absorption of the tradition of the world as a whole, with  no  explicit  demarcation  between  culture  of  origin  and  reception  (when devoured,  the  cultural  specificities  are  incorporated  into  the  native  self),  while providing Brazilians with a positive hybrid identity, also has a direct impact on the narrative of modernity (Rosenberg 3).” (Havanne, 2021,p25). The manifesto is like others at the time and was a product of its time- “Brazil was still culturally colonised and that it was time to do away with such a mentality of dependance” (de Andrade Tosta, Antonio Luciano, 2011,  p217).

The Cannibalist Manifesto of 1928 explores cultural consumption and creative rejuvenation by viewing it through Antropófago. Within its discourse, Andrade advocates for the subversion of conventional artistic paradigms, proposing instead the ingestion and amalgamation of both coloniser and colonised art. It explains the  political and pragmatic value of the cultural products made by this philosophy, a way to judge their value as part of the Brazilian cultural landscape.

“Cannibalism alone unites us. Socially. Economically. Philosophically “ ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.1). 

The manifesto starts with this statement, de Andrade is arguing that cannibalism is “The world’s single law”, it is ubiquitous in the creation of culture, a “Disguised expression of all individualism” Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.1). The argument of the manifesto is entrenched in the history of the foundation of Brazil, from part of an empire to a republic. In the first third of the manifesto de Andrade emphasises that unlike European states, Brazil was never founded upon catechism (religious or rigid instruction), it was not founded on Western logic. This logic was brought upon the native Brazillians by the importation of the ideals of western colonisers.

 Before there was the western “other" in Brazil, there was no “primitive thought” (Lévy-Bruhl), there was just thought, “We already had communism. We already had surrealist language.” ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.3).. “ Lazy is the mapamundi of Brazil. A participatory consciousness, a religious rhythmetics.”  ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.2). This colonial attitude leaked into the intellectual classes of Brazil active in the 1920’s (who de Andrade is criticising). He calls these intellectuals “old plants' ' which are vegified within an absence between nature and culture, “Down with the vegetable elites. In communication with the soil” ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.3). It was these cultural attitudes that Oswald de Andrade wanted to disrupt. 

His solution was Antropófago, the devouring and digesting of an enemy to gain its strengths while creating one's own cultural artefacts - “Tupi or not Tupi, that is the question” ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.1).  This line is a pun on Shakespeare which was in English in the original text, to devour, digest and then piss out pop, European culture (Shakespear), taking its strength of language and creating a sentence involving the author’s ideas on the Tupi natives. This sums up the tone of the rest of the manifesto, making jokes out of colonial influences with wordplay and references to Brazilian history. The manifesto is both Anthropofagia as well as an argument for it.

It ends on an optimistic note “our independence has not yet been proclaimed” stating that there is still time for the “cannibal vaccine” to take effect and move away from colonialist-logic-thought ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.7). De Andrade believes the constitution of the Brazilian people, Brazilian cannibals, to be strong, that his ideas can be effectively taken on and used “We are concretists, ideas take charge, react, and burn people in public squares.” ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.6).

Fig.2. Clark, L, (1969), Baba Antropofágica

Baba Antropofágica (Fig.2) by Lygia Clark is a performance piece that embodies this notion of cultural cannibalism by incorporating elements from various sources and traditions into her performance art, thus reflecting the spirit of the Cannibalist Manifesto (Acervo : baba antropofágica, N/D). 

By referencing Freud's theory of totem and taboo, de Andrade is making a judgement about the nature of societal norms and cultural practices. Freud's theory suggests that primitive societies had a reverence for a totem, an emblematic symbol representing their collective identity (Freud,1912-1913) . Oswald interprets Freud’s work as this totem becoming a taboo through colonisation as Freud theorised that these taboos were often connected to deep-seated psychological fears and desires ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.3).

“We already had justice, the codification of vengeance. Science, the codification of Magic. Cannibalism. The permanent transformation of the tabu into totem.”  ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.3).

Here taboo is civilised as it is under patriarchal rule. De Andrade is advocating for totemistic cannibalism, doing away with the taboo placed on cannibalistic traditions by colonisers. This is a rejection of patriarchy as patriarchy is “civilisation” ruled by a western idea of logic. 

This rhetoric “objectified ideas. Cadaverized. The stop of thought that is dynamic”As previously mentioned, this is exacerbated by “the vegetable elites” ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.3). 

“From William James and Voronoff. The transfiguration of the taboo into a totem. Cannibalism”  ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.5).

W.James demystified interpretation of religion, this contrasts with the catechesis which de Andrade wants to demolish. 

Voronoff represents a biological pragmatism as he had a practice of grafting genital glands of monkeys into humans for revitalisation (Fig.3), return to youth. This is a metaphor for how Oswald also makes his judgements around the beliefs in the manifesto. He does not mind making a grotesque comparison between the ritual devouring of human flesh and cultural reclamation for the Brazilian people. This is a pragmatic judgement, even if the ethics of doing the grotesque works (is pragmatic) for revitalisation then that is ok. 

Fig.3. Voronoff, S, (1924-25), Rejuvenation 

“The struggle between the uncreated and created. This struggle is because of the contradiction between Man and his taboo”. Here “Man” is everyday love and “taboo” is his capitalist way of life. 

“Absorption of the sacred enemy. To transform him into a totem.” ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.6). 

It is the process of eating, digesting and expelling which turns taboo back to totem. Personal experience of a pre-existing thing, a thing which is forced upon the populace by a higher power (colonial or capital, colonial ideals or mass marketed  pop culture). 

“ [down with] The determination of progress by catalogues and television sets.”( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.4). Colonisation and capitalism 

“Sense of authority in the face of curious offspring” ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.5). He is stating that there is a “telling off “ of curiosity. Curiosity happens in the face of something, something that already exists. It is a response (in this case to coloniser art and ideals) and its function is to consume, digest and respond. This is cannibalism. 

This text seems to find value in objects being truthful representatives and responses to surrounding culture. De Andrade advocates for them being pragmatic, they are useful in their fight against the forms of colonial oppression. 

No aesthetic judgements are distinctly put forward but a unified aesthetic does emerge when looking at these products ( they all come from applying similar cultural values on a rebirthed respect of old native traditions ). The text is made up of short statements and poetic prose which are separated by stars. The original manifesto fits around an illustration (Fig.1) , the English translation used for this analysis takes up seven pages ending in footnotes which provide contextualisation for the translation ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991). The text is made up of poetic prose and therefore is mostly made up of metaphor and references to history and mythology (referring to the history of Tupi tribal activities, named colonists during the foundation of Brazil and to the matriarchal sun and moon gods of the old Tupi beliefs).

As this text is a manifesto, by its own nature is an object which passes judgement (his arguments outlined in above section). Such contentious attitudes toward art production means that different forms of judgement can be dynamically applied to come to different conclusions about the political, pragmatic or aesthetic value of the work and of works produced inspired by it. 

The manifesto can be read to covertly argue for assimilation. A work whose starting blocks are the culture of the oppressor cannot be truly Brazilian and can be turned into an oppressive tool to set a precedent by the coloniser. Frantz Fanon, a prominent thinker in post-colonial studies, is known for his critical analysis of colonialism and its effects on both the coloniser and the colonised. His judgements about the ethics of the effects of colonialism can be used to argue against the Cannibalist Manifesto as it’s advocating for cultural cannibalism as a means of cultural independence and regeneration, directly contradict the beliefs of Fanon. Fanon emphasised the importance of embracing one's own cultural heritage and reclaiming one's identity. He believed that true liberation comes from rejecting the coloniser's culture and asserting one's own.

“The intellectual who through the medium of culture has filtered into Western civilization, who has managed to become part of the body of European culture—in other words who has exchanged his own culture for another—will come to realise that the cultural

matrix, which now he wishes to assume since he is anxious to appear original, can hardly supply any figureheads which will bear comparison with those, so many in number and so great in prestige, of the occupying power's civilization.”(Fanon,1961, p-219).

Judging the work politically from the point of view of one of Oswald de Andrade’s Brazilian contemporaries shows it to be unsatisfactory to the question of Brazilian cultural independence. This criticism is made by Mário de Andrade. He argued that O. de Andrade was using simplified versions of Tupi cultures, turning them into simple emblems for the sake of metaphor. “The writer Mário de Andrade advocated a lusty embrace of the indigenous elements of Brazilian culture.” (Rohter, 2023). 

“We never catechized. What we really made was carnaval. Indian dressed as a senator of the empire”  ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.3). This sounds like what is being argued is that even if native Brazilians have gained independence, any existence of them in government would just be an “Indian” dressing up. The manifesto can itself as a whole be read as “a flat carnivalesque intention” (Madureira, 2011). 

“ It  is  therefore  the  epistemological  framework  which  informs  our  “re-readings”  of  the  Manifesto—rather  than  a  failure  or  banality  intrinsic  to  the text—that produces what we may come to define as nonsense and paradox.” (Madureira, 2011, p-31).

This criticism seems more like a side note from others in the Antropófago movement. The cultural impact of the art created has given more cultural richness and value than the previously mentioned ethical questions. 

A differing political and pragmatic judgement which can be made in response to the text is the argument for the benefits of cultural hybridity. This argument is both political and pragmatic as it is concerned with the ethics of cultural appropriation/ assimilation and as well as arguing that the outcomes of cultural hybridity are things that work well towards the goal of cultural altruism (are pragmatic). 

“Postcolonial criticism bears witness to the unequal and uneven forces of cultural representation involved in the contest for political and social authority within the modem world order…These contingencies are often the grounds of historical necessity for elaborating empowering strategies of emancipation” (Bhabha, 1994, p.171). 

This idea of judgement being fueled by the search of a greater good, perhaps a cultural altruism, in this specific case, can be backed up by the ideas of Homi. K. Bhaba in his writing on The Location of Culture (1994). Bhabha contends that colonialism doesn't just erase or replace existing cultures; it also produces new, hybrid cultures that are a mix of both the coloniser's culture and the colonised culture. “cultural hybridity that entertains difference without an assumed or imposed hierarchy.’ (Bhabha, 1994, p.4.).  These hybrid cultures are dynamic and constantly evolving, resisting simple categorization or domination by any one culture. Bhabha sees cultural hybridity as a site of potential resistance to colonial power, as it disrupts the binaries and hierarchies that underpin colonialism.

A living working artist that applies cultural hybridity like this to her work is Adriana Varejão. She uses symbols of traditional European art made during the colonisation of Brazil and adds cannibalist aesthetic interventions  as a way to explore the themes of cannibalism and colonial views of gendered bodies (Fig.4). 

Fig.4, Varejão. A, (2019), Canibal Rhetoric, Museu de Arte Moderna Aloísio Magalhães, Recife, Brasil. 

The opening point of this essay refers to the current knock on effects of cannibal rhetoric in Brazilian IP law. This raises questions about legal judgements that can be drawn from the manifesto. From a capitalist perspective ( the one de Andrade was arguing against originally) this conclusion is negative in terms of royalties and keeping creativity as an untouchable commodity. Negative judgements could also be drawn when looking from an artist’s perspective. Looking at whether abusing copyright affects the validity of an artwork, whether it makes it less creative or just a pastiche, is the contemporary final level to looking at cultural cannibalism and how its role in an artwork’s production should negatively affect how we judge it.

Music culture in Brazil is a prime example why neither of these negative judgements apply in the real world. Music created post- Modernismo and Tropicália proudly cannibalises hegemonic European and American music cultures and since the 2004 IP law changes contemporary DJs in Brazil have had more legal freedom to use samples in their work ( Lippman, 2014, p.14).  This goes against the western capitalist way to conventionally go about artistic creation, it seems ethically dubious and like something that would be victim of aesthetic pastiche. 

“I identify very much with that movement… I ate John Zorn. I ate Paul Simon. I ate Celine Dion. I ate Miles Davis, the American Constitution, the French Revolution. I ate Jesus. I ate Budha. And I’m trying to eat you guys right now” (Jazz Night in America, Cyro Baptista, 0:58- 1:19). 

Brazilian music, particularly exemplified by the works of Tom Zé and Cyro Baptista, resonates with the judgments set forth in the Cannibalist Manifesto. Their music embodies the spirit of cultural hybridity and resistance advocated by the Manifesto and Brazilian Modernism.Through their experimentation and reappropriation of musical elements, they not only challenge dominant cultural paradigms but also assert Brazil's cultural independence. “Tropicalists saw no conflict of interest in appropriating Western ideas for their own political aims or otherwise collapsing binaries as long as they maintained their oppositionality” (Rollefson, 2007, p.307). 

In Ze’s album Fabrication Defect he “proposes an ‘‘Esthetics of Plagiarism’’ as a way to

appropriate and then reformulate the products of Western capitalism” (Rollefson, 2007, p.305). In the more post-modern applications of the idea of cultural cannibalism, the idea of plagiarism and copyright are prevalent (Rollefson, 2007, p.306). 

To address the risk of art produced under cannibalism falling “victim to aesthetic pastiche” a comparison between cultural cannibalism committed by colonising European countries and that which is committed by the colonised (Brazil). 

The reason why Brazilian Anthropofagia doesn’t become aesthetic pastiche is because of how the European practice does. The brazilian one is based on strengthening and survival whereas the european aims to exoticise to purely aesthetic means ( regarding modernist and postmodernist style (Tölölyan, (1986)). 

Confronting the “white cannibal”, Deborah Root writes; “ Power dazzles and blinds, and those closest to its heart are often unable to see anything beyond its reflection…Those who affirm a more marginal relation to the dominant culture sometimes more easily see the nature of that system and notice what those closer to the centre may overlook” ( Root,1996, p.8).  

European hegemonic culture, when devouring those it deems weeker, is obsessed with “reflections “ rather than meaning ( refer back to literary example with the French Dada Cannibalist Manifesto) whereas Anthropofagia does this for political and strenghtening ends, not merely aesthetic borrowing. 

Looking at the manifesto solely as a theoretical piece of work, the arguments against its sentiments (as outlined above)are not something I can argue with in terms of  de Andrade using simplified versions of Tupi culture to fit with his message. The manifesto seems idealist and naively hopeful that art basing itself on an imposing culture while also trying to be a revolutionary and defiant piece in its own right. However, when looking at the art works, music and modern/ contemporary Brazilian culture as a whole, (produced under these ideals) it is defiant and it can stand on its own. This cannot be ignored. Brazilian culture has done what others cannot and has succeeded in the aims of its idealist modernist movement. Yet, when looking at the work created under these ideas (Fig. 1, 2, 4 and music explained above) they are dynamic and can stand on their own legs without the audience immediately relating them as having ‘stickers’ of European culture put on them for the sake of it. 

Judging from this conclusion, I think yes, do away with copyright laws stifling artists from doing what they want to do, whatever it is that they are doing, “What has that to do with us?” ( de Andrade, Oswald, and Leslie Bary,1991, p.4). 

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